An index is a statistical composite that is used to indicate the performance of a market or a market sector over various time periods. Examples of indices that are used to gauge the performance of stocks and other securities in the United States include the Dow Jones Industrial Average, the National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations (NASDAQ) Composite Index, the New York Stock Exchange Composite Index, etc. In general, the Dow Jones Industrial Average contains thirty (30) stocks that trade on the New York Stock Exchange as well as NASDAQ, and is a general indicator of how shares of the largest United States companies are trading. The NASDAQ Composite Index is a composite index of more than three thousand (3,000) companies listed on the NASDAQ (also referred to as over-the-counter or OTC stocks). It is designed to indicate the stock performance of small-cap and technology stocks. Finally, the New York Stock Exchange Composite Index is a composite index of shares listed on the New York Stock Exchange.
In equal-dollar weighted indices, the weights of each component are reset to equal values at regular intervals, such as for example, every quarter. Between re-adjustments, the weights of the various index components will deviate from the equal-dollar weighting values as the values of the components fluctuate. Periodically, indices must be adjusted in order to reflect changes in the component companies comprising the index, or to maintain the original intent of the index in view of changing conditions in the market. For example, if a component stock's weight drops below an arbitrary threshold, or if a component company significantly alters its line of business or is taken over by another company so that it no longer represents the type of company which the index is intended to track, the index may no longer be influenced by, or reflect the aspects of the market for which it was originally designed. In such cases, it may be necessary to replace a component stock with a suitable replacement stock. If a suitable replacement that preserves the basic character of the index cannot be found, the stock may simply be dropped without adding a replacement. Conversely, activity in the market for which an index is created may dictate that a new stock (which was not originally included in the index) having a strong impact in the market be added to the index to adequately reflect the market without eliminating other components. In each case, the divisor may be adjusted so that the index remains at the same level immediately after the new stock is added or the old stock is eliminated.
Derivatives are financial securities whose values are derived in part from a value or characteristic of some other underlying asset or variable (the underlying asset). The underlying asset may include securities such as stocks, market indicators and indices, interest rate, and corporate debt, such as bonds, to name but a few. Two common forms of derivatives are options contracts and futures contracts, discussed herein below.
An option is a contract giving the holder of the option the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell an underlying asset at a specific price on or before a certain date. Generally, a party who purchases an option is said to have taken a long position with respect to the option. The investor taking a long position is a long investor. The party who sells the option is said to have taken a short position. The investor taking a short position is a short investor. There are generally two types of options: calls and puts. An investor who has taken a long position in a call option has bought the right to purchase the underlying asset at a specific price, known as the “strike price.” If the long investor chooses to exercise the call option, the long investor pays the strike price to the short investor, and the short investor is obligated to deliver the underlying asset.
Alternatively, an investor who has taken a long position in a put option receives the right, but not the obligation to sell the underlying asset at a specified price, again referred to as the strike price on or before a specified date. If the long investor chooses to exercise the put option, the short investor is obligated to purchase the underlying asset from the long investor at the agreed upon strike price. The long investor must then deliver the underlying asset to the short investor. Thus, the traditional settlement process for option contracts involves the transfer of funds from the purchaser of the underlying asset to the seller, and the transfer of the underlying asset from the seller of the underlying asset to the purchaser. Contrary to traditional settlement, cash settlement allows options contracts to be settled without actually transferring the underlying asset. Cash settlement, however, is more common.
A call option is “in-the-money” when the price or value of the underlying asset rises above the strike price of the option. A put option is “in-the-money” when the price or value of the underlying asset falls below the strike price of the option. An at-the-money option wherein the price or value of the underlying asset is equal to the strike price of the option. A call option is out-of-the-money when the price or value of the underlying asset is below the strike price. A put option is out-of-the-money when the price or value of the underlying asset is above the strike price. If an option expires at-the-money or out-of-the-money, it has no value. The short investor retains the amount paid by the long investor (the option price) and pays nothing to the long investor. Cash settlement of an in-the-money option, be it a call or a put, however, requires the short investor to pay to the long investor the difference between the strike price and the current market value of the underlying asset.
Cash settlement allows options to be based on more abstract underlying “assets” such as market indicators, stock indices, interest rates, futures contracts and other derivatives. For example, an investor may take a long position in a market index call option. In this case, the long investor receives the right to “purchase” not the index itself, but rather a cash amount equal to the value of the index (typically multiplied by a multiplier) at a specified strike value. An index call option is in-the-money when the value of the index rises above the strike value. When the holder of an in-the-money index call option exercises the option, the short investor on the opposite side of the contract is obligated to pay the long investor the difference between the current value of the index and the strike price, usually multiplied by the multiplier. If the current value of the index is less than or equal to the strike value, the option has no value. An index put option works in the same way but in reverse, having value, or being in-the-money when the value of the index falls below the strike value.
Futures contracts are another common derivative security. In a futures contract, a buyer purchases the right to receive delivery of an underlying commodity or asset on a specified date in the future. Conversely, a seller agrees to deliver the commodity or asset to an agreed location on the specified date. Futures contracts originally developed in the trade of agricultural commodities, but quickly spread to other commodities as well. Because futures contracts establish a price for the underlying commodity in advance of the date on which the commodity must be delivered, subsequent changes in the price of the underlying asset will inure to the benefit of one party and to the detriment of the other. If the price rises above the futures price, the seller is obligated to deliver the commodity at the lower agreed upon price. The buyer may then resell the received product at the higher market price to realize a profit. The seller in effect loses the difference between the futures contract price and the market price on the date the goods are delivered. Conversely, if the price of the underlying commodity falls below the futures price, the seller can obtain the commodity at the lower market price for delivery to the buyer while retaining the higher futures price. In this case, the seller realizes a profit in the amount of the difference between the current market price on the delivery date and the futures contract price. The buyer sees an equivalent loss. Like options contracts, futures contracts may be settled in cash. Rather than actually delivering the underlying asset, cash settlement merely requires payment of the difference between the market price of the underlying commodity or asset on the delivery date and the futures contract price. The difference between the market price and the futures price is to be paid by the short investor to the long investor, or by the long investor to the short investor, depending on which direction the market price has moved. If the prevailing market price is higher than the contract price, the short investor must pay the difference to the long investor. If the market price has fallen, the long investor must pay the difference to the short investor.
Again, like options, cash settlement allows futures contracts to be written against more abstract underlying “assets” or “commodities,” such as market indicators, stock indices, interest rates, futures contracts and other derivatives. For example, an investor may take a long position in a market index futures contract. In this case, the long investor “buys” the index at a specified futures price (i.e. a future value of the index on the “delivery” date). The index based futures contract is cash settled. One party to the contract pays the difference between the futures price and the actual value of the index (often multiplied by a specified multiplier) to the other investor depending on which direction the market has moved. If the value of the index has moved above the futures price, or futures value, the short investor pays the difference the long investor. If the value of the index has moved below the futures price, or futures value the long investor pays the difference to the short investor.
Cash settlement provides great flexibility regarding the types of underlying assets that derivative investment instruments may be built around.